Dance History
Dance is the wedding of movement to music. It spans
culture from soaring ballet leaps to the simple swaying at the school
prom. It is dance, a means of recreation, of communication--perhaps
the oldest, yet the most incompletely preserved, of the arts. Its
origins are lost in prehistoric times, but, from the study of the
most primitive peoples, it is known that men and women have always
danced. There are many kinds of dance. It can be a popular craze,
like break dancing, or ballets that feature superstar performers
such as Mikhail Baryshnikov and Suzanne Farrell. It can be folk
dances that have been handed down through generations, such as the
square dance, or ethnic dances that are primarily associated with
a particular country. It can be modern dance or musical comedy dancing,
both fields that were pioneered by American men and women. Dances
in primitive cultures all had as their subject matter the changes
experienced by people throughout their lives, changes that occurred
as people grew from childhood to old age, those they experienced
as the seasons moved from winter to summer and back again, changes
that came about as tribes won their wars or suffered defeats. Two
sorts of dance evolved as cultures developed: social dances on occasions
that celebrated births, commemorated deaths, and marked special
events in between; and magical or religious dances to ask the gods
to end a famine, to provide rain, or to cure the sick. The medicine
men of primitive cultures, whose powers to invoke the assistance
of a god were feared and respected, are considered by many to be
the first choreographers, or composers of formal dances. Originally
rhythmic sound accompaniment was provided by the dancers themselves.
Eventually a separate rhythmic accompaniment evolved, probably played
on animal skins stretched over wooden frames and made into drums
or similar instruments. Later, melodies were added; these might
have imitated birdcalls or other sounds of nature, or they might
have been a vocal expression of the dancers' or musicians' state
of mind. The rhythmic beat, however, was the most important element.
This pulsation let all the dancers keep time together, and it helped
them to remember their movements too. By controlling the rhythm,
the leader of a communal dance could regulate the pace of the movement.
Primitive dancers also shared certain gestures and movements, which
were drawn from their everyday lives. People planting seeds swing
their arms with unvarying regularity. People who are hungry rub
a hand on their empty bellies. People who want to show respect or
admiration bend down or bow before another individual. These gestures,
and others like them, were part of the earliest dances. There is
also a large vocabulary of gestures that originated as a means of
expressing bodily needs. Caresses are universally taken to signify
tender feelings. Clenched fists mean anger. Hopping up and down
indicates excitement. Primitive dancers used all of these movements
in both their social and religious or magical dances. These dances
were not created and performed for entertainment, as many dances
are today. One of the major reasons for them was to help tribes
survive. Long before the written word could guarantee that traditions
would be passed on and respected, it was dance that helped the tribe
preserve its continuity.
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SOCIAL DANCING As known today,
social dancing is an activity that can be traced back to three sources:
the courts of Europe, international society, and primitive cultures.
Among noblemen and women of 16th- and 17th-century Europe, ballroom
dancing was a popular diversion. After the political upheavals of
the 18th and 19th centuries, dances once performed by the aristocracy
alone became popular among ordinary people as well. In America,
too, dances that were once confined to the gentry who first led
the republic passed to the common folk. By the mid-19th century,
popular dances attracted many participants who performed minuets,
quadrilles, polkas, and waltzes--all of European origin. None of
these dances grew more popular than the waltz, which was first introduced
to the Austrian court in the 17th century. Its gliding, whirling
movements immediately became the rage throughout the entire population.
Some people, however, found waltzing undignified, and in 1760 the
performance of waltzes was banned by the church in parts of Germany.
Nevertheless, the mania continued, and by the late 18th century
waltzing was common in the cosmopolitan cities of London and Paris.
People felt the same spirit in the dance that they perceived in
the great political events of the day--the French and the American
revolutions. The waltz stood for freedom of expression and freedom
of movement. Unlike more courtly dances, with their restricted steps
and predetermined poses, the waltz allowed the performers to sweep
around the dance floor, setting their own boundaries and responsible
to nobody but their partners. By the early 20th century the waltz
as an art form was exhausted. It found a final admirer in the French
composer Maurice Ravel, whose orchestral piece 'The Waltz' both
celebrates the dance's traditions and mourns its passing out of
fashion. Around the time of World War I, when America's attention
was fixed on other lands around the globe, a dance craze developed
that had strong international influence. From South America came
the tango and the maxixe. European dances inspired the American
couple Irene and Vernon Castle to develop many new sophisticated
dances that won vast popularity and that were performed nationwide.
As the 20th century evolved, African and Caribbean rhythms and movements
increasingly influenced social dancing. Swing, the jitterbug, the
twist, boogie, and disco dancing all share a free and improvised
movement style and a repetitive, percussive rhythm that can be traced
to more primitive sources. Another important influence was felt
from Ireland, whose clog dances were first brought to America in
the 1840s. After being adapted by local performers, clog dance steps
became the tap dances done by generations of minstrels and music
hall performers. Tap dancing was originally performed as an accompaniment
to song. With costume, makeup, and scenery, it was another of the
entertainer's accessories, its percussive and rhythmic patterns
heightening a song's effectiveness. Modern dancers, however, made
tap an art form of its own. Rhythms grew more intricate, and movements
became larger. Greater emphasis was placed on elements of dance
composition and design, and greater value was shown to the music
made by the taps themselves. Among the greatest tap dance artists
are Bill "Bojangles" Robinson, who refined the minstrel
tradition, and Fred Astaire, whose performances are unsurpassed
for their musicality and grace (see Astaire). Folk dancing preserved
its own identity as these popular dances developed. By folk dance
is meant a dance that originated in a particular country or locality
and has become closely identified with its nation of origin. The
czardas, for example, is unmistakably Hungarian, and the hora is
linked to Israel. These dances are often performed by dedicated
groups of amateurs who want either to preserve the dance tradition
of their ancestors or to share in another country's culture. (See
also Folk Dance.)
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DANCE AS AN ART FORM Ancient Egypt The first great
culture to infuse its entire society with the magic of dance was that
of Egypt. Far more than mere pastime, dancing became an integral part
of Egyptian life. It evolved from the most simple rituals used by
hunters to find their prey. Performing the dances was believed to
help in later hunts. A leader, called a priest-dancer, was responsible
for seeing that the dances were performed correctly so that the hunt
would be successful. Eventually these dances were separated from their
ritual and became an art of their own. This development paralleled
the emergence of Osiris as the Egyptians' most important god. With
his mythical sister and wife, Isis, he was a symbol of a more developed
civilisation on Earth, and belief in him guaranteed everlasting life.
Dance was a crucial element in the festivals held for Isis and Osiris.
These occurred throughout the year--in the summer, for instance, when
the Nile River began to rise and the corn was ripening, and in the
fall on All Souls' Night--the ancient ancestor of Halloween. Dance
was also important in the festivals dedicated to Apis, the bull associated
with fertility rituals, and also in a ceremony in which priests portrayed
the stars in celebration of the cosmos, or harmonious universe. As
was true in more primitive cultures, music was a part of these celebrations
but not as important as the dancing itself. Egyptians had developed
stringed, wind, and percussion instruments as well as different sorts
of whistles and harps. Dance figured, too, in private life. Professional
performers entertained at social events, and travelling troupes gave
performances in public squares of great cities such as Thebes and
Alexandria. Movements of Egyptian dances were named after the motion
they imitated. For instance, there were "the leading along of
an animal," "the taking of gold," and "the successful
capture of the boat." Probably many of the poses and motions
were highly acrobatic, though in certain instances Egyptian dance
steps look remarkably like steps in classical ballet.
GO TO TOP OF PAGE Ancient Greece Myths associated with the Greek
god Dionysus are remarkably similar to those that surround the Egyptians'
Osiris, suggesting that the early culture of Greece was influenced
by that of Egypt. According to the philosopher Aristotle, Greek
tragedy originated in the myth of Dionysus' birth. He relates that
the poet Arion was responsible for establishing the basic theatrical
form, one that incorporated dance, music, spoken words, and costumes.
There was always a chief dancer who was the leader of these presentations.
As the form evolved, the leader became something close to what would
now be considered a combination choreographer and performer, while
other participants assumed the role of an audience. By the 6th century
BC, the basic form of theatre as known today was established. No
matter how far Greek theatre moved from its original ritual sources,
it was always connected with the myths of Dionysus. Participation
in dance and drama festivals was a religious exercise, not merely
an amusement. In Greek plays dance was of major importance, and
the three greatest dramatists of the era--Aeschylus, Sophocles,
and Euripides--were familiar with dance in both theory and practice.
Sophocles, for example, studied both music and dance as a child,
and, after the defeat of the Persians in the 5th century BC, he
danced in the triumphal celebration. In his childhood Euripides
had been affiliated with a troupe of dancers, and in plays such
as 'The Bacchae', his last great work, a dancing choir plays a role
of major importance. Even in earlier times dancing was popular among
the Greek people. It was thought to promote physical health and
to influence one's education positively. These attitudes were passed
on from generation to generation. For instance, in Homer's epics,
which date from the 11th to 10th century BC, dance is portrayed
as a kind of social pastime, not as an activity associated with
religious observances. By the end of the 4th century BC, dancing
had become a professional activity. Dances were performed by groups,
and the motion of most dances was circular. In tragic dances--where
mimed expression, or wordless action, was important--the dancers
would not touch one another. Generally, in fact, Greek dances were
not based on the relationship between men and women. Most were performed
by either one sex or the other. Greek dance can be divided into
large and small motions--movements and gestures. Movements were
closely related to gymnastic exercises; schoolchildren had to master
series of harmonious physical exercises that resembled dance. Gestures
imitated poses and postures found in everyday life and conveyed
all the emotions ranging from anger to joy. For musical accompaniment
the Greeks used stringed instruments such as the lyre, flutes such
as the panpipe, and a wide variety of percussion instruments, including
tambourines, cymbals, and castanets. Altogether there were more
than 200 Greek dances designed for every mood and purpose. There
were comic pieces, warlike works, and dances for athletes, spectacles,
and religious worship. For purely social purposes there were dances
for weddings, funerals, and seasonal celebrations connected with
harvest time. Yet these dances were not as important as those connected
with the theatre. By the 5th century BC, dancing had become recognised
as an art.
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Roman Empire As early as 364 BC entertainers from Greece were imported
to Rome to perform theatrical pieces in honour of the gods and to
amuse a population weary from a plague. These performers inspired
the local population to develop plays of their own--mimes and bawdy
farces that included elements of dance. Roman culture, which eclipsed
the Greek in approximately the 3rd century BC, was in many ways
influenced by Grecian models. In dance, however, the Romans distorted
the balance and harmony that characterised the Greeks, putting the
most emphasis on spectacle and mime. Dancing itself almost disappeared.
Roman theatre had originated in 240 BC, when public games were held
after the victory in the first Punic Wars. As part of these celebrations
comedy and tragedy were performed, including drama, music, and dance.
According to the writer Plutarch, dance included three elements:
motion, posture, and indication, the last a gesture that pointed
out some object near the performer. Performances such as these fed
the Romans' love of spectacle. Their desire to see a bustling stage
full of people led to performances that took place in ever-larger
spaces. Conventional theatres were replaced by the circus and the
arena. To get his meaning across to such a large audience, a performer's
gestures had to become cruder and coarser. Eventually the artist's
skill was blunted, and with this loss of craftsmanship came a loss
of social prestige. Dancers, who were honoured and respected by
the Greeks, became little more than slaves to the Romans. Though
spectacles provided the Roman population with most of its dancing,
social and domestic dances were also performed to a limited extent.
Most of these had a religious or ritualistic nature. They prophesied
events or appeased the gods. Dances were also designed for entertainment,
with battle pieces the most common. In general, however, dancing
was not highly thought of. The famous orator Cicero said in a speech
that "no man, one may almost say, ever dances when sober, unless
perhaps he be a madman; nor in solitude, nor in a moderate and sober
party; dancing is the last companion of prolonged feasting, of luxurious
situation, and of many refinements." As the Roman Empire expanded,
secular dances showed exotic influences. People from Africa to Britain
fell under Roman rule, but their strange, foreign movements and
gestures were never truly integrated into a style of dance the Romans
could call their own. Like the artworks among their plunder, the
dances were merely novelties and curiosities. While dance itself
was diminished by the Romans, pantomime became an art form worthy
of respect in itself. Under the reign of Caesar Augustus in about
22 BC, the pantomime dance-drama became an independent form of artistic
expression. Most of the pieces were tragedies, and dancers made
liberal use of costumes and masks. According to the writings of
the 2nd-century Greek satirist Lucian of Samosata, Roman pantomime
was a highly developed art form that made lavish and creative use
of dance. Though the Romans showed little use for the dance as developed
by the Greeks, they excelled in this new form of pantomime dance-drama.
GO TO TOP OF PAGE Christian Era With the rise of Christianity throughout
the first millennium, dramatic rituals developed for use during
prayer. The Latin mass is the best-known of these rites. Originally
dance movements were part of these pieces as well as music and a
dramatic dialogue. By the Middle Ages these works moved from inside
the churches to the out-of-doors. On cathedral porches, church squares,
and marketplaces, miracle plays, mystery plays, and morality plays
that taught the church's lessons were enacted in a theatrical way.
Rather than being part of the ritual, however, these pieces had
become a form of entertainment. Dance was also observed in two other
sorts of activity. In dramatic ritual games with dance movement
the passing of the seasons was celebrated, even as it had been by
primitive tribes; and in the works of troubadours and other wandering
minstrels, dance and song were used to express the full range of
human emotions. Another important rite of the Middle Ages was known
as the dance of death. A ritual procession performed throughout
Europe from the 14th to the 16th century, it was a sort of danced
parade that was led by a figure representing death. It was performed
perhaps with the most intensity in the years of the Black Death,
a bubonic plague that swept across Europe beginning in 1373. At
once grotesque and graceful, the piece expressed the anguish of
a diseased civilisation. The dance of death reflected the rituals
performed by primitive peoples, who had also danced to acknowledge
the passing of the seasons of the year and of a human life on Earth.
Other dances in the Middle Ages did the same. During the annual
May games, for example, dances were performed that celebrated the
greening of the countryside and the fertility of the land. During
saints' days, which echoed the rites dedicated to Dionysus, large
groups of women danced in churches. Similar to earlier pieces associated
with battles, sword dances were performed in Germany, Scotland,
and elsewhere in Europe. Similar to the sword dance is the Morris
dance, which was performed at secular festivals from Scotland to
Spain.
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Development of Ballet--Italy Out of the many styles
in the late Middle Ages--religious dancing, folk dancing, and performances
by minstrels--emerged the art form now known as ballet. An early
pioneer whose work led in this direction was Guglielmo Ebreo, better
known as William the Jew, from the Italian town of Pesaro. A teacher
of dance to the nobility, he also wrote a study of dance that includes
one of the first examples of recorded choreography. These dance
steps were not designed for the stage or for professional dancers
but for amateurs to perform at festive balls. At the same time when
William was active, dancing was on the move. First performed as
part of feasts and then in ballrooms, dances finally found a home
in theatres. Performed between the acts of classical comedies, tragedies,
or operas, they became known as intermezzos. Gradually the word
balletti, which originally referred to dances performed in ballrooms,
was used for the dramatic works in theatres. Ballet as it is known
now was just around the corner. 'Circe', a work created in 1581,
is said to be the first ballet. Original in its mixture of theatrical
elements that had been found for more than a decade in Italy and
France, 'Circe' was the work of an Italian who became a Frenchman,
Balthasar de Beaujoyeulx. His work was the inspiration of the Ballet
Comique de la Reine, a sort of grand theatrical presentation that
entertained the nobles at court in the last two decades of the 16th
century. These rich pieces brought together in a unified way the
separate elements of tournament presentations, masquerade, and dramatic
pastorals, or rural scenes. In 1588, a few years after 'Circe',
a book crucial in the development of ballet, 'Orchesographie' by
Thoinot Arbeau, was published. It set forth the dance steps and
rhythms that became the ballet postures and movements in the 17th
and 18th centuries. The next great pioneer was another Italian-born
Frenchman, Jean-Baptiste Lully, who was born in Florence and served
Louis XIV at Versailles. Though best known as an opera composer,
his influence on dance was profound. In 1661 he established a department
of dance in the Royal Academy of Music, and he played an important
role in making ballets more coherent and unified. He also improved
the musical scores to which dancers performed as well as the scenic
designs and the librettos, or texts, on which the dances were based.
In 1664 Lully began to work with the playwright Moliere. They produced
many works that had a major effect on both music and dance. In his
opera-ballets Lully expanded the scope of dance. There was greater
use made of dancers' arms and legs and a more adventurous attitude
toward the space on the stage. (See also Lully.)
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Growth of Ballet--France By the 18th century
the centre of dance activity had moved from Italy to France. For this
period the best guide is Pierre Rameau, whose book 'The Dancing Master'
is primarily a guide to social dances performed not just in France
but throughout all of Europe. As with earlier treatises, 'The Dancing
Master' also describes stage presentations, for both social and stage
dancing shared the same steps. In the decades preceding Rameau's book,
the public's appetite for dancing had been stimulated. This hunger
was satisfied by the opera-ballets that flourished in the first half
of the 18th century. These works were operas of a sort, but dancing
and orchestral music overshadowed the dramatic elements. The balance
that Lully had established between drama, dance, and music had been
destroyed. Now, in the opera-ballets, dance was the main element,
with music of next importance and drama far behind. Choreographers
of the time tried to avoid an old-fashioned style of movement and
aimed instead for a new sort of expressive gesture. Dancing became
highly personal and creative for both dancer and choreographer. Individual
performers often added steps and gestures of their own, and it was
during this time that the first great soloists were recognised. Among
the most beloved dancers during the first half of the 18th century
was Marie Anne de Dupis, called Camargo, who was brilliant technically
and daring; she is credited with shortening her skirt a few inches
to allow audience members to better see and appreciate her intricate
footwork. Marie Salle was also a great favourite and brought a new
freedom to the dance through her expressive use of costume and masterful
use of gestures. Gaetano Vestris was the first among male dancers,
known for his elegance and delicacy. All of the advances made by these
and other artists, and by choreographers of the time, were classified
and recorded by the writer Jean-Georges Noverre, whose 'Letters on
the Dance' became the authority for succeeding generations. The 'Letters'
also proposed to reform dance of the day by getting rid of all movements
and gestures not justified by the drama. Like the opera reformer-composer
Christoph Willibald Gluck, with whom he was associated, Noverre wanted
to purify his art form and make it even more effective for the audience.
Noverre's reforms would be remembered and applied into the 20th century.
Salvatore Vigano was another dancer who ultimately changed the course
of his art. After performing in his youth in Italy and Spain, he went
to Vienna, where he collaborated with Beethoven, among others. The
dances he created were notable for their innovative use of groups
and their fine attention to detail. More than any of his peers, Vigano
made works that recalled the art of sculpture.
GO TO TOP OF PAGE Romantic Ballet and Beyond An Italian master was
also responsible for some of the 19th century's most important creations.
Carlo Blasis, who was schooled in the ideas of Noverre, published
in 1830 his 'Code of Terpsichore', a book of ballet instructions
that became the standard manual through all of Europe and even in
Russia. It was Blasis' technique that formed the great ballerinas
of the era: Marie Taglioni, Fanny Elssler, Fanny Cerrito, Carlotta
Grisi, and Lucille Grahn. Each embodied a different aspect of the
romantic ideal for the period. Taglioni thrilled audiences with
her virtuoso technique, for example, and Elssler excelled in character
dances that evoked exotic lands. The choreographer who developed
and defined romantic ballet was Marius Petipa. He arrived in St.
Petersburg from Italy in 1847, and during his reign as ballet master
the Russian school eclipsed all others in theatrical splendour and
brilliant dancing. With his assistant Lev Ivanov, he created the
core repertoire of the Russian ballet--works such as 'Don Quixote',
'Swan Lake', and 'The Nutcracker'--and his influence is still felt.
It was not a choreographer or even a dancer who spread the Russian
ballet through Europe and the Americas but an impresario, or promoter-manager.
Sergei Diaghilev's genius was in bringing together some of the foremost
artists of his time (see Diaghilev). His Ballets Russes, formed
in 1909, drew on talents that had been formed at the Maryinsky Theatre
in St. Petersburg. Michel Fokine, trained as a dancer, developed
into a choreographer of great distinction. A work such as 'Les Sylphides'
brought to the romantic ballet a new purity. A piece like 'Sheherazade'
brought a colourful and exotic strain to the ballet stage (see Fokine).
Collaborating with him, under Diaghilev's watchful eye, were superb
designers such as Leon Bakst; musicians such as Igor Stravinsky;
dancers such as Vaslav Nijinsky, Tamara Karsavina, and Anna Pavlova;
and choreographers such as Leonide Massine and George Balanchine.
(See also Nijinsky; Pavlova; Balanchine.) Although America had seen
ballet dancers as early as the late 18th century, it was not until
the 20th century that the art form took root in the United States.
Spurred by visits of Diaghilev's troupe, American-born performers
showed a new interest in the art. After the Ballets Russes was dissolved
in 1929, many of its dancers immigrated to the United States. Around
those performers who remained in Europe--artists such as Alexandra
Danilova, Alicia Markova, and Massine--companies such as the Ballet
Russe de Monte Carlo and the Original Ballet Russe were formed.
In the 1930s they toured the United States from coast to coast.
The first major American company to be established was the Ballet
Theatre--now the American Ballet Theatre (ABT)--founded in 1940.
Conceived of as a repository of great works from differing dance
styles, it had difficulty in establishing an identity of its own,
even though it often presented world-class artists such as Alicia
Alonso, Nora Kaye, and Cynthia Gregory. Among its finest choreographers
have been Antony Tudor, Jerome Robbins, Agnes de Mille, Twyla Tharp,
and Mikhail Baryshnikov. The superstar Baryshnikov was artistic
director of the ABT from 1980 until his resignation in 1989. The
New York City Ballet, which was founded in 1948 with Balanchine
as its principal choreographer, set new standards for the world
of ballet. Ballet technique became even more virtuosic and gestures
more economical. In the more than 150 works that he created for
the company, Balanchine devised some of the century's most profound
and beautiful productions. Among his masterpieces are 'Agon' and
'Orpheus', both to music of Igor Stravinsky; 'Serenade', Tchaikovsky;
and 'Concerto Barocco', Bach. Robbins, who also worked with the
ABT, became a ballet master with the company in 1969 and created
two of his finest works for its dancers--'Dances at a Gathering'
and 'The Goldberg Variations'. Among the company's best dancers
were Diana Adams, Violette Verdy, Suzanne Farrell, Jacques d'Amboise,
Edward Villella, and Peter Martins, who took over the company with
Robbins after Balanchine's death in 1983. Arthur Mitchell, the first
black dancer to perform with the New York City Ballet, founded his
own company, the Dance Theatre of Harlem, in 1971. This interracial
company won a new audience for ballet and opened opportunities for
young black dancers. Another pioneer was Alvin Ailey, whose American
Dance Theatre performed a stylistically wide variety of worksdash;from
modern dance classics by Ted Shawn to ballet-influenced works by
Ailey himself. The company was composed exclusively of black dancers
until Ailey integrated it in 1963. In the mid-20th century interest
in dance also increased in England. The Royal Ballet evolved under
choreographer Frederick Ashton into a company of impeccable style
and feeling. The pieces Ashton created made perfect use of his dancers,
among whom were Margot Fonteyn and Rudolf Nureyev (see Nureyev).
In Russia the tradition begun in the 18th century continued to flourish
in the 20th century through the country's two venerable companies--the
Bolshoi in Moscow and the Kirov, known to Petipa and Diaghilev as
the Maryinsky, in St. Petersburg. (See also Ballet.)
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Modern Dance At about the same time that Fokine
was reforming the traditional ballet in St. Petersburg, an American
woman was developing a revolutionary concept of dance. Isadora Duncan
was trained in ballet but later found that these movements did not
allow her as much expression of herself as she desired. Rather than
modifying the conventional postures and steps, Duncan threw them
out. Her new form of dance was spontaneous and highly personal and
let her feel that her spirit had been liberated. (See also Duncan.)
Because it was so personal, this new kind of dance was an art form
that could not be passed on to the next generation. Duncan, however,
inspired younger people also to express themselves through dance.
This was the beginning of the form now called modern dance. Among
those included with Duncan as modern-dance pioneers are Ruth St.
Denis and Ted Shawn, who specialised in highly theatrical and exotic
tableaux, or stage pictures. Like the opera-ballets of the 18th
century, their pieces satisfied an audience's hunger for a glimpse
of foreign people and places. Though dancers such as the German
Mary Wigman, a highly dramatic performer, had a wide following both
in America and Europe, no modern dancer was as influential as the
American Martha Graham. A pupil of St. Denis and Shawn, she invented
a style of dance that did not just ignore traditional ballet steps
but contradicted them completely. Graham's revolutionary technique
denied the primary importance of the classical positions of ballet.
For her the source of interest and energy was the centre of the
body, not its extremities. Through her company and her school, which
trained successive generations of disciples, Graham influenced every
modern dancer of importance--titans such as Jose Limon, Paul Taylor,
Merce Cunningham, and Twyla Tharp are included on this list--and
made America the centre of creativity for modern dance.
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Dance in Musical Comedy Americans also created
the most vital forms of theatrical dancing. The first musical stage
performance seen in the United States was a ballad opera called 'Flora',
produced in Charleston, S.C., in 1735. More than a century later,
'The Black Crook' (1866) also scored an enormous success. It was not
until the 20th century, however, that dancing and drama became truly
integrated. Credit for this breakthrough goes to Agnes de Mille, whose
'Oklahoma!' (1943) made dancing an integral part of the story. Performed
by dancers who had studied ballet, the dances in 'Oklahoma!' included
not just ballet steps but folk dance and modern dance as well (see
De Mille). Equally successful were the dances choreographed by Jerome
Robbins for 'West Side Story', which brought a new vitality to the
musical theatre. Robbins, in his turn, influenced other choreographers
such as Bob Fosse and Michael Bennett.
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ETHNIC DANCE Older than folk dances are dances
performed and preserved by ethnic groups throughout the world. Every
culture has developed its own means of expression through movement.
These dances were part of tribal rituals, designed to be performed
at crucial moments in the life of both the individual and the tribe.
American Indians Despite similarities in purpose
among all tribal dances, differences existed from culture to culture.
American Indians, for example, had separate dances for men and for
women and others in which men, women, and children took part. These
dances emphasised various movements for the feet and postures for
the head. Arms were not considered as important. As in many other
tribal cultures, drums beat out an accompaniment. Far East Dancing
in the Orient is different from that in the West. In Eastern dance
every movement has a specific meaning. Each gesture of the hands,
the head, the arms, and the feet conveys a specific message that
unschooled Western observers can only guess at.
India.
In India, as in Western cultures, dances celebrate various festivals
and rites of passage. The most important is the Hindu classical
dance-drama bharata natya, which comes from the southeast. Performed
by one woman, this dance has a great variety of bodily movement
and is accompanied by rhythms stamped out by the performer's feet.
Kathakali, from southwestern India, is performed only by men and
young boys. The movements of these highly theatrical dances are
extremely energetic, and drums and other percussion instruments
accompany the performers. Japan.
Traditional dances in Japan have been performed for centuries. Among
the best-known forms are No and Kabuki, both dance-dramas that combine
mime and dance steps. Unlike dancing in the Western world, Japanese
dancing is very formal and moves at a slow and stately pace. China.
Chinese dancing was developed thousands of years ago, when formal
dances were performed at the ancient Chinese court. Dancing was
also an important part of Chinese religion and philosophy. Through
the ages these dances were largely forgotten and abandoned. Chinese
dancing today is most often performed as a part of Chinese opera.
Indonesia.
In Indonesia, however, the people have kept their dances alive and
infused them through the years with new steps and movements. Instead
of clinging to ancient traditions, the Indonesian people have adapted
and modernised their dances. Spain Some native dances from Spain
can be traced back to Greek times. Spanish dancers were known throughout
the Roman Empire for their artistry. During the Renaissance the
saraband and the pavane were developed and performed by the ruling
classes, while the common people created their own dances like the
fandango, bolero, and cachucha. Perhaps the best-known Spanish dance
is the flamenco, a Gypsy dance thought to be of Indian or Persian
origin. A dance of great exuberance and intensity, a flamenco is
improvised as the performer works within traditional forms according
to the mood of the moment. A guitarist follows the rhythms, and
friends clap, stamp, and shout encouragement.
Africa The origins of African dance are lost in antiquity, but it
is known that tribal peoples throughout Africa relied on dance to
a remarkable degree. An integral part of everyday life, dances were
used to express both joy and grief, to invoke prosperity and avoid
disaster, as part of religious rituals, and purely as pastimes.
Although traditional African dance all but vanished as the continent
yielded to Western culture, several dances survived. Fertility dances
in Cote d'Ivoire are performed in the shape of a circle. Performers
move rhythmically to the beat of drums, and many wear masks depicting
birds and beasts. Also found in Cote d'Ivoire is a highly dramatic
hunting dance. With vivid pantomimed gestures, two men carrying
bows and arrows pursue a boy who wears an antelope mask. In a totem
dance in Burkina Faso (formerly Upper Volta), a dozen men wearing
animal masks take turns doing acrobatic leaps and jumps to the beating
of drums until all but their leader is exhausted.
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Refrences
Penguin Hutchinson Reference Library
Encyclopedia Brittanica
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